Ok Tedi Mine

The Ok Tedi mine is a huge open pit operation to extract high-sulphide gold and copper from the Star Mountains in western Papua New Guinea (Campbell)

Kiunga River Port
(rettet-die-elbe)

The Ok Tedi Mine and River

Gold from Zimbabwe

The Ok Tedi Mine

Ball Mill

The Ok Tedi River


http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/international/2009-11-19/fate-of-pngs-ok-tedi-mine-depends-on-report-says-owners/143602

Copper and gold are currency metals, which are used to make coins. Gold is highly conductive metal and is used in most electronic devices, including cell phones. Gold is contained in connectors, switches, and relay contacts allows phones to remain free of corrosion. Copper is essential to many modern-day technologies and appliances, including transportation vehicles, heating and cooling systems, telecommunications, and power generation (Geology.com). Due to its conductive properties, relatively low production costs, and flexibility, it is used to make copper wire, which is an important part of modern life and is included in the technologies above.

The Ok Tedi mine is an open pit mine, which means that the native rock and other sediment are removed from a large tract of land to reach the wanted substances (in this case, copper and gold) ("Basics of an Open Pit Mine"). At the Ok Tedi mine, strategies like drilling (making holes to excavate or to fill with explosives) and blasting are employed (Kentucky Coal Education) ("OK Tedi Mine, Oceania, Papua New Guinea"). These allow for the separation of ore and overburden. The Ok Tedi mine produces 78,000 tons of ore and 80,000 tons of overburden annually ("OK Tedi Mine, Oceania, Papua New Guinea")

After it has been retrieved, the ore is first crushed into 200 mm pieces by gyratory crushers, then ground into sand on a grinding circuit that includes "semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) mills and ball mills" ("OK Tedi Mine, Oceania, Papua New Guinea"). The sand is then placed in flotation cells with reagents to create air bubbles, which attract the copper and gold minerals. Later, these compounds float to the surface for collection ("OK Tedi Mine, Oceania, Papua New Guinea"). The condensed slurry is sent through a 157 kilometer (97.5 mile) pipeline to the river port of Kiunga, where it is transported to consumers ("OK Tedi Mine, Oceania, Papua New Guinea").

According to the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), “Up to 80,000 tonnes of waste rock and 120,000 tonnes of tailings are disgorged from the Ok Tedi/Fly River system - every day. In addition, 30 million tonnes of tailing ‘fine sand’ are discharged annually into local rivers.” (WWF) As a result, the lifestyle of around 30,000 locals, most notably the Yonngom, a group of about 4,500 living in the Lower Ok Tedi area, has been disrupted. Due to river pollution, they are no longer able to sell their garden produce, and the fish stocks have been severely depleted. "Ok Tedi’s reports revealed that fish stocks in the upper Ok Tedi had declined between 50% and 80% from pre-mining levels." (WWF).

According to the Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF), by the 1990s the first 70 km of the river was "almost biologically dead and species diversity over the next 130 km had been dramatically reduced. Fertile river bank subsistence gardens, plantations and approximately 8 km² of forest have been destroyed." (Banks G.)

However, there is hope for the Ok Tedi area. In June of 1996, the Broken Hill Proprietary Company (which is the world's largest mining company) and local indigenous leaders reached an out-of-court settlement that included a binding agreement that BHP and Ok Tedi Mining Ltd. would create a $350 million tailings containment facility. This agreement would cause BHP and the Ok Tedi mine to become the first mine to not release tailings directly into rivers or the sea. The government originally only agreed to allow the mine if it had a tailings dam to filter out the waste from the mine before it entered the river. However, after the original dam was destroyed in a landslide, the owners of the mine successfully pushed to continue their mine operations without a replacement dam, which has caused widespread pollution. 
The government has suggested that the mine only operates if there was a tailings dam built to filter out pollutants from the water. One was built but was destroyed by a landslide, and since then the mine operators are adamant on not building a new one. Overall, Government policies are not enforced enough that the mine actually follows these rulings.

Works Cited

Agency, Environmental Protection. “What Is Acid Mine Drainage.” Sos Blue Waters. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://www.sosbluewaters.org/epa-what-is-acid-mine-drainage%5B1%5D.pdf>.

“Basics of an Open Pit Mine.” mine-engineer.com. mine-engineer.com, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://www.mine-engineer.com/mining/open_pit.htm>.

“BHP Billiton Withdraws from Ok Tedi Copper Mine and Establishes Development Fund for Benefit of Papua New Guinea People.” BHP Billiton. BHP Billiton, 8 Feb. 2002. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.bhpbilliton.com/home/investors/news/Pages/Articles/BHP%20Billiton%20Withdraws%20from%20Ok%20Tedi%20Copper%20Mine%20and%20Establishes%20Development%20Fund%20for%20Benefit%20of%20Papua%20New%20Guinea.aspx>.

Bice, Sarah. “Ok Tedi Immunity Gone, with Implications beyond BHP.” The Conversation. Conversation US, 22 Oct. 2013. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://theconversation.com/ok-tedi-immunity-gone-with-implications-beyond-bhp-19188>.

Burton, Bob. “BHP Admits Ok Tedi Mine is Environmental Disaster.” Asia Times. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://www.atimes.com/oceania/AH13Ah01.html>.

Campbell, Ian. “Ok Tedi Mine – Leaving Time Bombs on the Fly River Floodplain.” River Symposium. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://archive.riversymposium.com/index.php?element=CAMPBELL_IANppt>.

“The Coinage Metals: Copper, Silver, and Gold.” ChemWiki. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Inorganic_Chemistry/Descriptive_Chemistry/d-Block_Elements/Group_11%3A_Transition_Metals/The_Coinage_Metals%3A_Copper,_Silver,_and_Gold>.

“Facts About Copper.” Geology.com. Geology.com, Jan. 2014. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://geology.com/usgs/uses-of-copper/>.

Fox, Liam. “PNG Government Takes Control of Ok Tedi Mine, Repeals Laws Protecting BHP from Legal Action over Pollution.” ABC News. ABC, 19 Sept. 2013. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-09-19/png-government-takes-control-of-png-ok-tedi-mine/4967004>.

Garrett, Jemima. “New Profit and Ownership Woes at PNG’s Ok Tedi Gold Mine.” ABC News. ABC, 10 Mar. 2014. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-03-10/png-ok-tedi-woes/5310896>.

“Glossary of Mining Terms.” Kentucky Coal Education. Kentucky Foundation, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://www.coaleducation.org/glossary.htm#B>.

Lonely Planet. Lonely Planet, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.lonelyplanet.com/papua-new-guinea/gulf-and-western-provinces/daru/sights/historic/ok-tedi-mine>.

“The Many Uses of Gold.” US Funds. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://www.usfunds.com/slideshows/the-many-uses-of-gold/#.VQcOJWTF9Ex>.

“OK Tedi Mine, Oceania, Papua New Guinea.” Mining-Technology.com. Kable, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://www.mining-technology.com/projects/ok-tedi-mine/>.

Ok Tedi Mining. Ok Tedi Mining, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.oktedi.com/>.

“Ok Tedi, Papua New Guinea.” World Wide Fund for Nature. World Wide Fund for Nature, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/new_guinea_forests/problems_forests_new_guinea/mining_new_guinea/ok_tedi_forest_new_guinea/>.

“Papua New Guinea’s Government Opens New Controversy regarding the Ok Tedi Mine.” Mining Examiner. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/png-makes-bhp-liable-for-environmental-damage-from-mine>.

“Papua New Guinea’s Government Opens New Controversy regarding the Ok Tedi Mine.” Mining Examiner. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/png-makes-bhp-liable-for-environmental-damage-from-mine>.

“Waste from Consumption and Production - The Ok Tedi Case: A Pot of Gold.” GRID Ardenal. GRID-Ardenal, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.grida.no/publications/vg/waste/page/2859.aspx>.

Biodiversity Hotspot: California Floristic Province

   Biodiversity is defined as the "variety of different species (species diversity), genetic variability among individuals within each species (genetic diversity), variety of ecosystems (ecological diversity) and functions such as energy flow and matter cycling needed for the survival of species and biological communities." (Miller 2012) Essentially, biodiversity assesses the variety and volume of species found in an area, in addition to the ability of the area to provide for them. Biodiversity is essential for the functions of the earth, as each species has an ecological niche.

Figure 1: A food web from the California Floristic Province (CFP)

   Together, these species allow ecosystems to function properly and provide important natural services to the world. However, some biodiversity-rich areas are in danger from human activities. These areas are called biodiversity hotspots-- areas that can only be found in one place that are rich in plant biodiversity, but face extinction due to serious ecological disruption from rapid human population growth, which puts additional pressure on natural resources (Miller 2012). There are 34 hotspots in the world; however, this post will examine the California Floristic Province (CFP), a region that encompasses 324,000 square kilometers in the state of California and parts of Oregon and Baja California (California Floristic Province 2014) that has been decimated by logging and human expansion.

Figure 2: The California Floristic Province

   Due to its large size, the California Floristic Province is able to sustain a variety of ecosystems, including the Sagebrush steppe, prickly pear shrubland, coastal sage scrub, chaparral, juniper-pine woodland, upper montane-subalpine forest, alpine forest, riparian forest, cypress forests, mixed evergreen forests, Douglas fir forests, sequoia forests, redwood forests, coastal dunes, and salt marshes (California Floristic Province 2014). The Floristic Province’s area and diverse landscape enable it to have a thriving plant population, 61% of which is endemic. Most of the species diversity comes from plants: there are 3,488 species, and the next largest group (mammals) consists of 127 species.

Diversity and Endemism
Taxonomic Group	Species	Endemic Species	Percent Endemism
Plants	3,488	2,124	60.9
Mammals	157	18	11.5
Birds	340	8	2.4
Reptiles	69	4	5.8
Amphibians	46	25	54.3
Freshwater Fishes	73	15	20.5

(Hogan 2009) The flora in the California Floristic Province has been used in a variety of way to support many industries. The Monterey pine, native conifers, and coastal redwoods are all pillars of the wood industry (Monterey pine is used in New Zealand and Australia), and sugar pines and giant sequoias were once widely used.

   The CFP provides many services including climate moderation, protection of watersheds and resources, habitats for rare, endangered, and pollinator species. It also provides recreation in the form of fisheries and game for hunters, as well as “many forms of passive recreation.” (Hogan 2009) Due to the size and geography of the area, there is abundant genetic diversity in the CFP, as seen in this study by the University of California Los Angeles: “Most animal taxa had an obvious genetic split that separated northern and southern populations about the Transverse Ranges in southern California. In addition, ~70% of all animal taxa showed additional east/west differentiation within the Sierra Nevada and Coast Range mountains.”

   Though the CFP is large and provides a multitude of opportunities for profit and recreation, there are several factors that threaten it. Population expansion is just one of these: according to a press release by the California Department of Finance, the population of the state is expected to exceed 50 million by 2049 and will grow to 52.7 million in 2060. This represents a gain of 39% compared to the estimated 2012 population (Palmer 2013). Not only will these people need a place to live, they will also require food for sustenance. “An estimated 1.7 million acres will be converted to agricultural uses and 1 million acres to urban and rural uses between about 1986 and 2000,” (California Floristic Province 2014). The CFP faces degradation from other sources like invasive species. Bromus, Cortaderia, Cytisus, Ilex, Mesymbryanthemum, Carpobrotus and Senecio mikanioides and more invasive plants are outcompeting native plant species (California Floristic Province 2014).

   California has taken note of the destruction it has caused to the CFP and has taken actions to prevent further damage to the area. National parks such as Yosemite serve alongside 107 state parks, near 50 wilderness areas, and 16 national wildlife refuges (Hogan 2009). Specialized conservation programs aim to preserve both the environment and endemic species, like the Palos Verdes Blue Butterfly.

Figure 3: Palos Verdes Blue Butterfly

The Palos Verdes Blue Butterfly is a small endemic butterfly that was put on the endangered species list in 1980. At that time, it was only known in three locations, all in Palos Verdes, California. Urban development in the area caused the belief that the species had gone extinct by 1984. However, in 1994 it was discovered in an area managed by the Department of Defense. It was found that a Chevron oil pipeline had disturbed the 1.98 acres of land in which the butterfly was found, resulting in a 10-acre restoration project to mitigate the effects. The DoD put in these goals for their conservation efforts: " Minimize or eliminate impacts to existing populations of the California gnatcatcher and the Palos Verdes blue butterfly and their habitat by reducing the overall disturbance to existing populations and habitat, and avoiding sensitive seasonal periods

• Increase habitat availability for listed species at DFSP through the use of restoration procedures

• Develop a long-term management plan for each listed species that includes the monitoring of populations and habitats

• Increase the awareness of DFSP staff to the requirements of listed species at DFSP"

Overall, California has set aside the most land and spent the most money for conservation out of any U.S. state, and 37% of the land in the CFP is under federal protection. (Hogan 2009)

Figure 3: The Majestic Giant Sequoia

   

Recovery for this area is hindered by its important to the U.S. and international logging, wine, and medicine industries. The province’s exceptional soil quality and water availability allow it to be the primary agricultural and lumber producer in the U.S. (California Floristic Province 2014). Its grapes provide a genetic base for those used in the flourishing wine industry, and native plants have long been used by Native Americans in their medicine. Additionally, pressures from countries like New Zealand and Australia promote the unsustainable yet lucrative logging industry (Hogan 2009).

   While the CFP is an economically and socially valuable area, it is also the home of noteworthy endangered species, including the California condor, the desert tortoise, the elf owl, and the green sea turtle. (State & Federally Listed Endangered & Threatened Animals of California 2014).

   The California Floristic Province is a biodiversity-rich area that houses many endemic and endangered species. Its unique array of ecosystems and its unmatched soil quality help California to be the most productive agricultural state in the U.S. and support industries in other countries as well. Though there has been serious degradation, there  is hope for restoration, and California is taking steps in the right direction to preserve its biodiversity hotspot.

Works Cited

Figure 1: "We're All in This Together." Redwood National and State Parks. Redwood National

   and State Parks, n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2014.

   <http://redwoodnationalandstateparks.weebly.com/food.html>.

Figure 2: California Floristic Province. Point Reyes National Seashore Association. Point

    Reyes National Seashore Association, n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2014.

    <http://www.ptreyes.org/activities/california-floristic-province>.

Figure 3: Majestic Giant Sequoia." California State Parks. California Department of Parks

    and Recreation, n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014. <http://www.150.parks.ca.gov/

    ?page_id=27588>.

"California Floristic Province." Department of Botany. Smithsonian Institution,

   n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. <http://botany.si.edu/projects/cpd/na/

   na16.htm>.

Hogan, C Michael. "Biological Diversity in the California Floristic Province."

   The Encyclopedia of Earth. Encyclopedia of Earth, 16 Dec. 2009. Web. 8

   Dec. 2014. <http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/150634/>.

"State & Federally Listed Endangered & Threatened Animals of California."

   California Department of Fish and Wildlife. California Department of

   Fish and Wildlife, Oct. 2014. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. <http://www.dfg.ca.gov/

   biogeodata/cnddb/pdfs/TEAnimals.pdf>.

Miller, Tyler G. and Spoolman Scott E. Living in the Environment (17th Edition). Belmont, California: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.

Palmer, H.D, and Bill Schooling. "New Population Projections: California to

    Surpass 50 Million in 2049." California Department of Finance. N.p., 31

    Jan. 2013. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. <http://www.dof.ca.gov/research/demographic/

    reports/projections/P-1/documents/Projections_Press_Release_2010-2060.pdf>.

"Palos Verdes Blue Butterfly." The Butterfly Conservation Initiative. Butterfly

    Conservation Initiative, n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2014.

    <http://butterflyrecovery.org/species_profiles/

    palos-verdes-blue-butterfly/>.

"Coastal Sage Scrub Habitat Development Project at the Defense Fuel Support Point

    (DFSP), San pedro, California in Support of the Palos Verdes Blue Butterfly

    (Glaucopsyche Lygdamus Palosverdensis)." Soil Ecology and Research Group.

    Soil Ecology and Research Group, n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2014.

    <http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/SERG/restorationproj/chaparraland/palosverdes/

    habrest.htm>.

Learning About Food Webs and Energy Pyramids

In the "Learning About Food Webs and Energy Pyramids" activity, I learned that food chains are all interconnected within a biome (which, when laid out, forms a food web) and that the size of the food web is determined by the conditions in the biome.
Food chains are made of two different types of organisms: producers and consumers. Producers make their own food by taking nutrients from the environment and using photosynthesis to convert energy from the sun into food. Producers are at the bottom of the food chain, and have the most energy. Consumers are organisms that can't make their own nutrients; instead, they take their nutrients from other organisms (both producers and consumers). There are different levels of consumers, which include primary, secondary, and tertiary. All this indicates is what type of food the organism eats, or its trophic level. Primary consumers eat producers, secondary consumers eat primary consumers, and tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers. The last level of consumers include detritus feeders and decomposers. Detritus feeders, like vultures, consume the remains of other consumers, instead of killing and eating them. Decomposers, like earthworms, release nutrients into the soil as they feed on nonliving matter. (Miller, Tyler G. and Spoolman Scott E. Living in the Environment (17th Edition).  Belmont, California: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.)

Food Web

The picture above shows a representation of a food web our group made during the lab activity. This web is made up of three different food chains-- one from each member of the group. The food web starts with the bottom row of plants (producers), then goes up through the levels of consumers until the decomposers. However, in an actual ecosystem, organisms don't stay within the boundaries of a food chain. For example, the bat from Food Chain 1 also ate fruit, which connected it to Food Chain 3's producer. We left out the connections for the decomposers and detritus feeders, as they would connect to everything. 

Our group decided that our biome was a tropical rain forest. In tropical rain forests, there's ample water but much of the light is blocked by thick canopies (Frey 2013). They support a diverse array of organisms, but there aren't many large predators. In our group, the only large predator was a leopard, which fit the description nicely.